All posts by : admin

The doctrine of estoppel under the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023 (BSA), which replaces the Indian Evidence Act, 1872, is found in Section 121 of the Act. It follows the same principles as the previous law but is now structured within the new legal framework.

What is Estoppel?

Estoppel prevents a person from contradicting or denying a previous statement, conduct, or representation if another party has relied on it to their detriment.

Key Elements of Estoppel (Section 121, BSA 2023):

1. Representation or Conduct – A person makes a representation, either by words, conduct, or omission.
2. Reliance – Another person believes and acts upon this representation.
3. Prevention from Contradiction – The person who made the representation cannot later deny or go against it.

Types of Estoppel in Indian Law:

1. Estoppel by Record – Based on judicial decisions.
2. Estoppel by Deed – Prevents denying facts in a formal contract.
3. Estoppel by Conduct – Arises from actions or representations.
4. Promissory Estoppel – When a person makes a promise knowing it will be relied upon, they cannot go back on it.
5. Equitable Estoppel – Based on fairness and justice.

Example:

If A tells B that he will not enforce a loan repayment, and B, relying on this, does not save money to repay it, A cannot later demand repayment.

While the BSA, 2023, has modernized legal provisions, the essence of estoppel remains largely the same as it was under Section 115 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872.

Any Type Of Consultation Or Suggestion Call Us On +91 9211732039 / +91 9891045644.

Section 530 of the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), 2023, permits the use of electronic modes for conducting various legal proceedings.

This includes the issuance, service, and execution of summons and warrants; examination of complainants and witnesses;

recording of evidence in inquiries and trials;

All appellate or other proceedings. These processes may be conducted using electronic communication or audio-video electronic means.

The adoption of electronic modes aims to enhance efficiency and accessibility within the judicial system. By leveraging technology, courts can expedite proceedings, reduce case backlogs, and provide more flexible options for participants, including remote appearances and digital submission of documents. This modernization reflects a significant shift towards integrating technology into legal processes, promoting a more streamlined and effective justice delivery system.

Any Type Of Consultation Or Suggestion Call Us On +91 9211732039 / +91 9891045644.

The Advocates (Amendment) Bill, 2025, is a proposed legislative measure by the Government of India aiming to update the Advocates Act, 1961. This initiative seeks to modernize the legal profession, enhance transparency, and align legal education and practice with global standards. The draft bill was released for public consultation on February 13, 2025, with stakeholders invited to submit feedback by February 28, 2025.

Key Provisions of the Draft Bill:

• Prohibition of Strikes and Boycotts: The bill introduces Section 35A, which explicitly prohibits advocates from engaging in strikes or abstaining from court work. This measure aims to ensure the uninterrupted functioning of the judicial system.
• Central Government Representation in the Bar Council of India (BCI): An amendment to Section 4 proposes the inclusion of three members nominated by the central government in the BCI. Additionally, the bill seeks to ensure better representation by including two female advocates in the council.
• Regulation of Law Firms: The BCI would be empowered to regulate law firms operating across multiple states, ensuring uniform standards and practices.
• Framework for Foreign Law Firms: The proposed amendments aim to establish a regulatory framework allowing foreign law firms and lawyers to practice in India, promoting cross-border legal collaboration.

In response to the draft bill, the Bar Council of India (BCI) has expressed significant concerns. In a formal submission to the Union Law Ministry on February 19, 2025, the BCI highlighted that several provisions could undermine the autonomy and independence of the legal profession. The council emphasized that if enacted in its current form, the bill might have serious implications for the profession’s integrity and self-regulation.

Call Us On +91 9211732039 / +91 9891045644

If a person is found guilty and is facing a rigorous punishment under the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC)(now BNSS) in India, there are several legal remedies available to reduce the punishment:
1. Appeal Against Conviction (Sections 372-394 CrPC) now in ( section 413-435 BNSS)
The convicted person can file an appeal before a higher court (Sessions Court, High Court, or Supreme Court) depending on the level of the trial court.
The appellate court can reduce the sentence based on the facts and circumstances.

2. Review or Revision (Section 397 & 401 CrPC) now in ( section 438-442 BNSS)
A revision petition can be filed in the High Court or Sessions Court to correct any error of law or if the sentence is considered too harsh.

3. Plea for Lesser Sentence (Section 235(2) CrPC) now in ( section 258(2) BNSS)
Before sentencing, the accused can request the judge to consider mitigating circumstances like age, health, or first-time offense to reduce the punishment.

4. Plea Bargaining (Sections 265A-265L CrPC) now in ( section 289-300 BNSS)
If the offense is not serious (punishable with imprisonment up to 7 years), the accused can plead guilty in exchange for a lesser sentence.

5. Commutation of Sentence (Section 433 CrPC)now in ( section 474 BNSS)
The government has the power to reduce the severity of punishment, such as converting rigorous imprisonment to simple imprisonment.

6. Suspension or Remission of Sentence (Section 432 CrPC) now in ( section473 BNSS)
The appropriate government may reduce or suspend the sentence based on good conduct, health issues, or humanitarian grounds.

7. Mercy Petition (Article 72 & 161 of the Constitution)
The convicted person can file a mercy petition before the President of India (Article 72) or Governor (Article 161) for pardon or sentence reduction.

Call Us On +91 9211732039 / +91 9891045644.

Section 61 Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS) deals with the concept of criminal conspiracy and is further divided into:
Section 61(1) – Defines criminal conspiracy as an agreement between two or more persons to commit an illegal act or a legal act by illegal means.
Section 61(2) – Specifies the punishment for criminal conspiracy.
Ways to Get Relief Under 61 Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS)

If a person is accused under Section 61(2) BNS (Punishment for Criminal Conspiracy), relief can be sought in the following ways:

Lack of Evidence – If the prosecution fails to prove that there was an agreement to commit an offense, the accused can be acquitted.

No Mens Rea (Criminal Intent) – If the accused can show that they had no intention to commit the crime and were unaware of the conspiracy, they may be relieved from liability.

No Direct Participation – If the accused was merely present but did not actively participate in planning or executing the act, they may argue for relief.

Filing for Anticipatory Bail (if not yet arrested) – If a person is falsely implicated, they can approach the court for anticipatory bail under Section 483 of BNSS.

Quashing of FIR under Section 528 BNSS – If the case is false or baseless, the accused can approach the High Court to get the FIR quashed.

Plea Bargaining (if applicable) – If the offense is minor, plea bargaining can be used to get a reduced sentence.

Discharge Application – Before the trial starts, the accused can file a discharge application under Section 250 BNSS (for sessions court) or Section 262 BNSS (for magistrate court) if the case lacks sufficient evidence.
Appeal Against Conviction – If convicted, the accused can challenge the verdict in the higher courts.

Call Us On +91 9211732039 / +91 9891045644.

Filing a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in India is a legal process that allows individuals or organizations to seek justice for issues affecting the public at large. Here’s a step-by-step guide to filing a PIL in India:

Step 1: Determine the Validity of PIL

• A PIL can be filed for issues concerning fundamental rights, environmental protection, corruption, or other matters of public interest.
• The petitioner must ensure that the issue affects a large section of society and is not for personal gain.

Step 2: Choose the Appropriate Court

• Supreme Court of India: Under Article 32 of the Constitution.
• High Court: Under Article 226 of the Constitution.
• Lower Courts: In special cases, PILs can be heard in district courts.

Step 3: Gather Supporting Documents and Evidence

• Collect relevant documents, reports, news articles, photographs, and any supporting materials to strengthen the case.
• If possible, get expert opinions or affidavits.

Step 4: Draft the PIL

• The PIL should include:
  1. Title: “In the Supreme Court / High Court of (State) at (Place).”
  2. Petitioner Details: Name, address, and contact details.
  3. Respondent Details: The government authority or department responsible.
  4. Facts of the Case: A clear and concise statement of the issue.
  5. Legal Grounds: Cite relevant constitutional provisions, laws, or precedents.
  6. Relief Sought: Specify the action you want the court to take (e.g., directions to government authorities).
  7. Verification: A declaration stating that the information is true and correct.

Step 5: Filing the PIL

• Submit the petition in the appropriate court registry.
• Pay the required court fee (nominal for PILs, typically ₹50 in High Courts and ₹500 in the Supreme Court).

Step 6: Preliminary Hearing

• The court will review the PIL to determine if it has merit.
• If accepted, notices will be issued to the concerned parties.

Step 7: Court Proceedings

• The court may appoint an amicus curiae (legal expert) to assist in the case.
• Both parties will be heard, and the court may seek reports from authorities.

Step 8: Court Decision

• The court may issue directions, orders, or guidelines based on the case.
• In some cases, the court may dismiss the PIL if it finds it frivolous or not in the public interest.

Important Points to Note

• PILs should not be filed for personal grievances.
• The petitioner may be penalized if the court finds the PIL to be frivolous or for personal publicity.
• It is advisable to consult a lawyer before filing.

The Consumer Protection Act, 2019, which replaced the Consumer Protection Act of 1986, strengthened consumer rights and introduced several new provisions to address modern marketplace challenges, including e-commerce and misleading advertisements. Here are the key new rights and protections provided to consumers under this Act:

1. Right to Protection Against Unfair Trade Practices

• The Act broadens the definition of unfair trade practices, including misleading advertisements, false product information, and failure to issue a bill or receipt.
• Celebrity endorsements are now regulated, holding endorsers accountable for misleading advertisements.

2. Right to Establishment of the Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA)

• The CCPA has been introduced to investigate violations of consumer rights, initiate class-action lawsuits, and impose penalties on misleading advertisements.
• It has the power to recall defective goods, cancel licenses, and impose penalties on manufacturers, sellers, and service providers.

3. Right to Protection from Unfair Contracts

• The Act introduces the concept of unfair contracts, which are one-sided contracts that disadvantage consumers, such as imposing excessive security deposits, unilateral termination, or unreasonable penalties.
• Consumers can now challenge such unfair contracts in consumer courts.

4. Right to E-Commerce Protection

• The law extends to online transactions, ensuring that e-commerce platforms disclose complete product information, refund policies, and grievance redressal mechanisms.
• It mandates that e-commerce platforms must not engage in unfair trade practices, such as manipulating consumer reviews or imposing hidden charges.

5. Right to Alternative Dispute Resolution (Mediation)

• A Mediation Mechanism is introduced to allow consumers to resolve disputes quickly and cost-effectively without going to court.
• This reduces the burden on consumer courts and speeds up conflict resolution.

6. Right to Seek Compensation for Defective Products (Product Liability)

• The Act introduces product liability, making manufacturers, service providers, and sellers liable for harm caused by defective goods or services.
• Consumers can claim compensation for injury, property damage, or even psychological harm caused by defective products.

7. Right to Expedited Consumer Dispute Resolution

• Consumer dispute redressal commissions at District, State, and National levels have revised pecuniary jurisdiction:
  • District Commission: Up to ₹1 crore (earlier ₹20 lakhs)
  • State Commission: ₹1 crore to ₹10 crore (earlier ₹1 crore)
  • National Commission: Above ₹10 crore
• Consumers can file complaints electronically and from their place of residence, making access to justice easier.

8. Right to Protection Against False and Misleading Advertisements

• Strict action can be taken against false and misleading advertisements, including penalties up to ₹50 lakh and imprisonment up to 5 years for manufacturers and endorsers.

9. Right to File Complaints from Anywhere

• Unlike the previous Act, which required filing complaints at the seller’s location, consumers can now file complaints from their place of residence or online.

10. Right to Class-Action Suits

• Consumers can file complaints as a group, enhancing protection against fraudulent business practices.

These enhanced rights under the Consumer Protection Act, 2019, provide better safeguards and empower consumers against modern marketplace malpractices, particularly in the digital and e-commerce space.

Any Type Of Consultation Or Suggestion Call Us On +91 9211732039 / +91 9891045644.

An Additional Sessions Judge (ASJ) in India is a judicial officer appointed under the Bharatiya Nagrik Suraksha Santhita, 2023 (BNSS) and functions under the jurisdiction of a Sessions Court. Their powers and responsibilities include:

1. Criminal Jurisdiction:

• An Additional Sessions Judge can preside over sessions trials involving serious offenses such as murder, rape, dacoity, kidnapping, and other heinous crimes.
• They have the power to award any sentence, including the death penalty (subject to confirmation by the High Court under Section 407 BNSS).
• They hear criminal appeals and revisions from judgments passed by Magistrate courts.

2. Civil Jurisdiction:

• In some states, an ASJ may have civil jurisdiction to hear appeals from subordinate courts.

3. Appellate and Revisional Powers:

• Can hear criminal appeals from decisions of Magistrates.
• Can revise orders of Magistrates to ensure justice and legality.

4. Special Jurisdictions:

• May be designated as a Special Judge to hear cases under special laws like:
  • Prevention of Corruption Act
  • Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act
  • Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act
  • SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act

5. Power to Grant or Reject Bail:

• Has the power to grant or reject bail in serious offenses, including those triable by the Sessions Court.

6. Supervision and Administrative Functions:

• Helps the District & Sessions Judge in managing judicial work in the district.

Conclusion:

An Additional Sessions Judge is a powerful judicial officer with the authority to handle serious criminal cases, hear appeals, and ensure justice. However, they function under the overall supervision of the Sessions Judge in the district.

If a person is accused in a dowry death case under Section 304B ( 80 BNS) of the Indian Penal Code (IPC), they can seek relief through legal means, including anticipatory bail, regular bail, quashing of FIR, and defense during trial. Below are the possible legal remedies:

1. Anticipatory Bail (Section 438 CrPC) NOW IS 482 BNSS

• If a person fears arrest, they can apply for anticipatory bail in the Sessions Court or High Court.
• The court considers factors like prima facie evidence, past criminal record, and possibility of misuse of dowry laws before granting bail.

2. Regular Bail (Section 439 CrPC) (NOW IS 483 BNSS)

• If already arrested, the accused can apply for regular bail before the Sessions Court or High Court.
• The court examines the gravity of offense, evidence available, and witness statements before granting bail.

3. Filing for Quashing of FIR (Section 482 CrPC) (NOW IS 528 BNSS)

• If the case is false or fabricated, the accused can approach the High Court under Section 528 BNSS to quash the FIR.
• Grounds for quashing include lack of evidence, false implications, and abuse of legal process.

4. Defense During Trial

• The accused can challenge prosecution evidence and present a strong defense during trial.
• Key defense strategies:
  • No cruelty or harassment: Prove that the accused never demanded dowry or harassed the deceased.
  • No direct involvement: Show lack of involvement in the alleged offense.
  • Medical and forensic reports: Challenge the cause of death based on forensic evidence.
  • Eyewitness testimony: Present witnesses who can support the accused’s innocence.

5. Appeal Against Conviction

• If convicted, the accused can appeal in High Court or Supreme Court for relief based on errors in judgment or lack of evidence.

6. Human Rights and Constitutional Remedies

• The accused can also approach the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) or file a writ petition in the High Court or Supreme Court if fundamental rights are violated.

Key Takeaways

• Seeking anticipatory bail can prevent immediate arrest.
• Quashing of FIR is possible if there is no substantial evidence.
• A strong legal defense is crucial to prove innocence.
• Appeal options are available if wrongly convicted.

or Any Type Of Consultation Or Suggestion Call Us On +91 9211732039 / +91 9891045644. This Suggestion is Absolutely Free.

In India, parole is a temporary release granted to a prisoner under specific conditions. It is governed by prison rules of individual states and not explicitly covered under the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC), 1973. However, CrPC does provide for suspension, remission, and commutation of sentences under Sections 432, 433, and 433A, which may be relevant in some cases.

How Can a Person Obtain Parole?

A prisoner can apply for parole by following these steps:

1. Filing an Application

• The prisoner or their legal representative must submit a parole application to the prison authorities.
• The application is usually addressed to the Inspector General of Prisons or State Home Department, depending on state laws.

2. Grounds for Parole

Parole is generally granted on valid grounds such as:

• Serious illness or death of a close family member (parents, spouse, children, siblings).
• Marriage of a close relative (sibling, child).
• Medical treatment (if unavailable in prison).
• Humanitarian reasons (e.g., natural disasters affecting family).
• Reintegration into society (for long-term prisoners).

3. Verification by Police & Jail Authorities

• Authorities verify the prisoner’s conduct, background, and risk to society.
• The police confirm the genuineness of the reason stated in the parole application.

4. Decision by the Competent Authority

• The state government or prison authorities review the request.
• If approved, the prisoner is granted parole for a specific period (usually 15 days to 1 month).

5. Conditions of Parole

• The prisoner must report to the police station at regular intervals.
• Cannot leave the designated jurisdiction without permission.
• Must return to prison on time.
• Parole can be revoked for misuse or violation of terms.

Types of Parole in India

1. Regular Parole – Granted for specific, justified reasons.
2. Emergency Parole – Given in extreme situations (death of a family member, critical illness).

Key Legal Points

• Parole does not reduce the sentence; it is just a temporary release.
• It is not a right but a privilege granted at the discretion of the authorities.
• Undertrial prisoners cannot apply for parole as they are not yet convicted.
• Prisoners convicted of serious offenses (like terrorism, rape, multiple murders) may not be eligible for parole.

or Any Type Of Consultation Or Suggestion Call Us On +91 9211732039 / +91 9891045644.